Sources by Chapter

Here you will find a series of links and content from a number of sources corresponding to the chapters in Clearing the Plains. We intend this to be an open source collection of archival or original documents that were compiled during the research of the book.

As graduate students, one of our professors told us that only about 5% of the material that we research is ever included in the finished text. With that in mind, we have included research notes from a number of archival sources collected in the research for the book.

Our goal with this part of the site is twofold. First, teachers and researchers can investigate the original sources used in the book. Second, and perhaps more importantly, the sources in this section can be used as materials for researchers to begin their own research projects.

You can begin by clicking on each of the chapters and on the links to the various collections below.

• Introduction
• Chapter One: Indigenous Health, Environment, and Disease Before Europeans
• Chapter Two: The Early Fur Trade: Territorial Dislocation and Disease
• Chapter Three: Early Competition and the Extension of Trade and Disease, 1740-82
• Chapter Four: Despair and Death During the Fur Trade Wars, 1783-1821
• Chapter Five: Expansion of Settlement and the Erosion of Health During the HBC Monopoly, 1821-69
• Chapter Six: Canada, The Northwest, and the Treaty Period, 1870-76
• Chapter Seven: Treaties, Famines, and Epidemic Transition on the Plains, 1877-82
• Chapter Eight: Dominion Administration of Relief, 1883-85
• Chapter Nine: The Nadir of Indigenous Health, 1886-91
• Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

The introduction provides a brief discussion the gap between indigenous and mainstream Canadians with regard to health outcomes. It is intended to show the gap between health outcomes of indigenous Canadian and mainstream Canadians in the present. It also provides a review of previous literature in the history of indigenous health, links to some important contributions are included.

Other books that have considered indigenous health in historical context include:

Arthur J. Ray, Indians in the Fur Trade: Their Role as Trappers, Hunters and Middlemen in the Lands Southwest of Hudson’s Bay, 1660-1870. (1998)
Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia (1998)
Maureen Lux, Medicine That Walks: Disease, Medicine, and Canadian Plains Native People, 1880-1940 (2001)
A pioneering work in the environmental history of western Canada is Theodore Binnema’s Common and Contested Ground: A Human and Environmental History of the Northwestern Plains (2001)

CHAPTER ONE

Indigenous Health, Environment and Disease before Europeans

This chapter examines the interaction of climate change and health in the centuries before the arrival of Europeans in America. It is based largely on archaeological sources and materials focusing on climate change. For a more detailed discussion of the impact of late prehistoric climate change on the indigenous people of western Canada see, James Daschuk, “A Dry Oasis: The Canadian Plains in Late Prehistory,” Prairie Forum 34(2009): 1-29. (PDF)

Historic Climate Change

One of the most important recent contributors to the history of climate change is Thomas J. Crowley.

Another prolific writer in the filed of climate history is Brian Fagan. For a popular history of the period known as the Little Ice Age, see his The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History,1300-1850.

On the impact of volcanoes on climate change.

Climate change in the past.

Archaeology

Information on the great city of Cahokia.

For an accessible history of Cahokia, see Timothy R. Pauketat, Cahokia: Ancient America’s Great City on the Mississippi (2009)

For a popular but controversial account of the impact of environmental change past societies, see Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive (2013)

CHAPTER TWO

The Early Fur Trade: Territorial Dislocation and Disease

This chapter examines the impact of Europeans and their germs to the northern plains and the profound impact those first encounters had on the indigenous nations of the region.

Among the most important concepts for the understanding of the impact of the first encounters between indigenous Americans and Europeans is that of the “Columbian Exchange” See Alfred Crosby’s The Columbian Exchange: The Biological Consequences of 1492 or a shorter discussion

Among Crosby’s most important contribution was the identification of what he called “Virgin Soil Epidemics”

Another brief discussion of Alfred Crosby’s “Virgin Soil Epidemics”

An important historic resource for the indigenous history of the Great Plains are illustrations known as Winter Counts which described the most important event of the year. An important early study of Winter Counts is Garrick Mallery’s Pictographs of the North American Indians (1886)

More information on Winter Counts

The importance of Winter Counts as indigenous histories was recognized by the Smithsonian Institution in 2005

Despite their often Eurocentric biases, the journals of early European travelers in the west provide valuable insights into indigenous communities. Here you will find more information on the explorations of the La Vérendyes

A biography of Surveyor David Thompson and other significant people in the fur trade

Also, some of Thompson’s manuscript notes are included in the Further Research section.

More information on the Cluny Archaeological Site (on the Siksika First Nation)

A video documentary on the expansion of the fur trade into the interior of the continent from the series, Canada A People’s History

An important early documentary providing an alternative view of the fur trade was produced by the National Film Board in 1972 called The Other Side of the Ledger: An Indian View of the Hudson’s Bay Company

CHAPTER THREE

The Early Fur Trade: Territorial Dislocation and Disease

This chapter deals with the impact of the expansion of the Canadian based fur trade in the west in the aftermath of the English conquest New France. Among the most significant epidemics of the period was the continental spread of smallpox which contributed to major territorial realignment in the aftermath of the outbreak.

For more on the exploration of Anthony Henday (Hendry) see The Encyclopedia of the Great Plains and the Canadian Encyclopedia

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 formally ended hostilities between England and France and was the first English document to recognize the concept of Aboriginal territory. For more information, see Indigenous Foundations.

The Royal Proclamation has been called Canada’s Indian Magna Carta.

A map illustrating the limits of Rupert’s Land (Hudson’s Bay Company Territory)

The Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-1783 was a continental phenomenon. For more information, see Elizabeth Fenn’s Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82 (2002) or visit History Today

For a discussion of the 1780s and later epidemics, see Paul Hackett’s A Very Remarkable Sickness: Epidemics in the Petit Nord, 1760 to 1846 (2002)

The documentary series, Canada: A People’s History provides an excellent overview of the conflict for colonial control of what would become Canada.

CHAPTER FOUR

Despair and Death During the Fur Trade Wars, 1783-1821

During the fur trade wars, the beaver were extirpated from the prairies by indigenous producers. For a discussion of the short-lived beaver hunt and which groups participated in it, see, James Daschuk, “Who Killed the Prairie Beaver? An Environmental Case for Eighteenth Century Migration in Western Canada,” Prairie Forum 37 (Fall 2012): 151-172 (PDF)

The fur trade wars took place during the final decades of the climate regime known as the Little Ice Age. A period of significant climatic instability driven by volcanic activity added to the hardship of conflict and game depletion. A major volcanic event during this period was the eruption in Laki, Iceland in 1783.

An even larger eruption, at Mount Tambora in Indonesia was the largest volcanic event of the 19th century.

The Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) expanded into the interior of western Canada beginning with the establishment of Cumberland House on the Lower Saskatchewan River in 1774. Employees at HBC posts were required to maintain a daily log or journal of events, providing the most detailed documentary record of early interactions between European traders and indigenous producers in the west. Included in the Further Research section are a number of transcribed HBC Post Journals. While they do not provide a complete inventory of the company’s activities, they may serve as a primary resource and an introduction to the complexity and detail of the records contained in the Hudson’s Bay Company Archives in Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Information on the creation of the North West Company.

CHAPTER FIVE

Expansion of Settlement and the Erosion of Health During the HBC Monopoly, 1821-69

Palliser Expedition Map of the Prairies (1857)

An important early account of the development of the Red River Settlement was written by Alexander Ross in the 1850s

For more information on Alexander Ross and other important historical figures, see the Dictionary of Canadian Biography.

Another important account of the west in the mid 19th century is Henry Youle Hind’s Narrative of the Canadian Red River Exploring Expedition (2014)

On the decline of the fur trade economy and its impact on the indigenous people of the region, see Frank Tough, As Their Natural Resources Fail: Native Peoples and the Economic History of Northern Manitoba, 1870-1930 (1996)

On the changing fortunes of the Ojibwa of western Canada, see Laura Peer’s The Ojibwa of Western Canada 1780-1870 (1994)

CHAPTER SIX

Canada, The Northwest, and the Treaty Period, 1870-76

This chapter deals with the impact of Canada’s purchase of Rupert’s Land, the smallpox epidemic of 1869-70 and the event that lead to the completion of Treaties 1-6.

William Butler’s The Great Lone Land: A Narrative of Travel and Adventure in the North-West of America (1872) provides an account of condition across the west in the aftermath of the epidemic of 1869-70.

Another contemporary account of the events surrounding the smallpox outbreak and Canada’s acquisition of the west is Isaac Cowie’s The Company of Adventurers: A Narrative of Seven Years in the Service of the Hudson's Bay Company During 1867-1874 on the Great Buffalo Plains. (1993)

While there has not been a book-length text on the smallpox epidemic of 1869-70, Alberta writer Hugh Dempsey wrote a chapter on the outbreak in his In Harm’s Way: Disasters in Western Canada (2004)

Other works by Hugh Dempsey provide highly readable accounts of indigenous history in Alberta. They include, The Amazing Death of Calf Shirt and other Blackfoot Stories: Three Hundred Years of Blackfoot History (1994) and Firewater: The Impact of the Whiskey Trade on the Blackfoot Nation (2002)

An early history of the whisky trade period that remains a classic is Paul Sharp’s, Whoop Up Country: The Canadian-American West, 1865 -1885 (1955)

George M. Grant’s memoir, Ocean to Ocean: Sandford Fleming’s Expedition through Canada in 1872 (1879) provides an account of the west in the years between Canada’s purchase of Rupert’s Land and the treaties.

One issue that Clearing the Plains did not focus on was the relationship between the Métis and the Canadian government. For a history, see D. N. Sprague’s Canada and the Métis, 1869-1885 (1988)

Classroom materials on various aspects of Métis history.

For a documentary on the expansion of Canadian authority to the plains from the series, Canada A People’s History, watch this video.

Treaty Commissioner Alexander Morris recounted his view of the treaty negotiation process in The Treaties of Canada with the Indians of Manitoba and the North-west Territories (1880)

For an analysis of the treaty process, see Arthur J. Ray, J.R. Miller, and Frank Tough, Bounty and Benevolence: A History of Saskatchewan Treaties.

Historian Abel Watetch wrote an early account of the indigenous view of the changes that came with the arrival of Canadian authorities in Payepot and his People (2007)

There are a number of classroom resources on the treaties available through the Office of the Treaty Commissioner of Saskatchewan.

CHAPTER SEVEN

Treaties, Famines, and Epidemic Transition on the Plains, 1877-82

The numbered treaties are the legal foundation for the establishment of Euro-Canadian settlement in the west. There are several sources for further information on them.

Background on Treaty Four can be found here and, in the John Leonard Taylor, Treaty Research Report-Treaty Four (1874), Treaties and Historical Research Centre, 1985

For background on Treaty Six can be found here and, in the John Leonard Taylor, Treaty Research Report-Treaty Six (1876), Treaties and Historical Research Centre, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1985

Text of Treaty Six
Treaty Five
Treaty Eight
Treaty Ten

For a comparative analysis of Canadian and American treaty making, see Jill St. Germain’s Indian Treaty Making in the United States and Canada, 1867-1877 (2001)

One of the most important articles published on the immediate post-treaty period was by John L. Tobias, “Canada’s Subjugation of the Plains Cree, 1879-1885", originally published in 1983.

An important source for Clearing the Plains and for the early settlement period of what became Saskatchewan was the Saskatchewan Herald published in Battleford. Its publisher, P.G. Laurie, reflected the racist views of the newcomers but his publication also provides an important chronicle of the hardship experienced by First Nations people during the famine years. Notes taken from the Herald from 1878 to the 1890s are included in the Further Research section of this site.

For a classic history of the bison and their demise, see Frank Roe’s The North American Buffalo: A Critical Study of the Species in its Wild State (1970)

Another important source on the disappearance of the bison is Andrew Isenberg’s The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History (excerpt), 1750-1920 (2000)

While the tuberculosis became the primary cause of sickness and death in this period, the spread of the disease was not universal across the region. Some, like the non-treaty Dakota were spared infection and sickness. See Daschuk, Hackett and MacNeil, “Treaties and Tuberculosis : First Nations People in the Late Nineteenth Century, a Political and Economic Transformation.”

CHAPTER EIGHT

Dominion Administration of Relief, 1883-85

This Chapter considers the relationship between the health of the reserve population and the way that the Canadian government administered its aid policy. A significant resource for this period is the Saskatchewan Herald. See the Further Research section for notes and scans from the Herald.

For an excellent discussion of the early ranching period in western Canada, see L.V. Kelly’s The Range Men: The Story of Ranchers and Indians of Alberta (1913)

On the short-lived steam boat period on the prairies, see Bruce Peel’s Steamboats on the Saskatchewan (1972)

The senior Canadian official in the west during this period was Edgar Dewdney. For a full biography, see Brian Titley, The Frontier World of Edgar Dewdney (1999)

Another important aspect of government policy regarding First Nations people was the suppression of traditional religious ceremonies. For an analysis of issue, see Katherine Pettipas, Severing the Ties that Bind: Government Repression of Indigenous Religious Ceremonies on the Prairies (1994)

CHAPTER NINE

The Nadir of Indigenous Health, 1886-91

This chapter traces the population decline of the reserve population 1885 to the influenza pandemic of 1890-91, an event that in many communities marked the nadir of their population.

A critical aspect of Dominion policy was the undermining of the commercial economies of indigenous farmers. For a complete analysis, see Sarah Carter’s pioneering work, Lost Harvests: Prairie Indian Reserve Farmers and Government Policy (1990) (MISSING LINK). On the “peasant farming” policy imposed by the Canadian government, see also Carter’s Two Acres and a Cow: ‘Peasant’ Farming for the Indians of the Northwest, 1889-1897” (1991)

For a discussion of the notorious pass system, see Laurie Barron, The Indian Pass System in the Canadian West, 1882-1935 (1988)

An important contemporary account of the disappearance of the bison is William Hornaday’s The Extermination of the American Bison with a Sketch of its Discovery and Life History (1889)

For another history of Canadian Indian policy and its impact on First Nations communities, see Helen Buckley’s From Wooden Ploughs to Welfare: Why Indian Policy Failed in the Prairie Provinces (1992)

One of the most important early books about the Ghost Dance was written by James Mooney, The Ghost Dance Religion and Wounded Knee (2012)

An important work surveying health conditions among indigenous people is James Waldram, D. Ann Herring, and T.K. Young’s Aboriginal Health in Canada: Historical, Cultural and Epidemiological Perspectives (2006)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Archival Sources

Glenbow Archives

M320, Edgar Dewdney Papers

Hudson’s Bay Company Archives (HBCA)

Biography Files
Search File: Battleford
Search File: Prince Albert
Search File: Smallpox Epidemic, 1870

Brandon House Post Journals

B.22/a/1, 1793–94

Chesterfield House Post Journals

B.34/a/2, 1800–01
B.34/a/3, 1801–02

Cumberland House Post Journals

B.49/a/1, 1774–75
B.49/a/3, 1775–76
B.49/a/4, 1776–77
B.49/a/6, 1777–78
B.49/a/7, 1778–79
B.49/a/9, 1779–80
B.49/a/11, 1781–82
B.49/a/31, 1801–02

Hudson House Post Journals

B.87/a/1, 1778–79
B.87/a/2, 1779–80
B.87/a/3, 1780–81
B.87/a/4, 1781–82
B.87/a/5, 1782
B.87/a/6, 1782–83

Fort Pelly Post Journals

B.159/a/17, 1837–38

Ile-à-la-Crosse Post Journals

B.89/a.4, 1819–20

Manchester House Post Journal

B.121/a/1, 1786–87
B.121/a/2, 1787–88
B.121/a/3, 1788–89
B.121/a/4, 1789–90

South Branch House

B.205/a/3, 1788–89
B.205/a/7, 1792–93
B.205/a/8, 1793–94

Library and Archives Canada (LAC)

MG 17, Records of the Church Missionary Society
MG 19 A 48, Fort Garry Correspondence
MG 26, John A. Macdonald Papers
MG 27, David Laird Papers
MG 29, Robert Bell Papers
RG 10, Records of the Department of Indian Affairs
RG 18, Records of the North West Mounted Police

Provincial Archives of Manitoba (PAM)

MG 2 A 1, Selkirk Papers
MG 12, Alexander Morris Papers

University of Toronto, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Room

MS 21, David Thompson Papers
MS 26, J. B. Tyrrell Papers
Reel 1264, David Thompson Narrative

Saskatchewan Archives Board (SAB)

A-104, W. Traill Papers
A-113, Campbell Innes Papers
R.2.75, School Histories of Thirty-Five Indian Reserves
R.2.391, R. G. Ferguson Papers
R.2.563, Sweet Grass Reserve Papers
R-39, A. E. Forget Papers
R-70, John A. Macdonald Papers
R-100, Mary Weekes Papers
RE-1120, Indians of North America
RE-2033, Edward Ahenakew Papers
RE-1888, Little Pine/Lucky Man Band
R-1.124, Anglican Diocese of Saskatchewan—Parish Records of the Church Missionary Society

Western University (WU)

D. B. Weldon Regional Library Regional Collection, David Mills Letterbooks, 1876–78

Books and Articles

Abel, Annie H., ed. Chardon’s Journal at Fort Clark, 1834–1839. Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1970.
Abel, Kerry. Drum Songs: Glimpses of Dene History. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1993.
Aborigines’ Protection Society. Canada West and the Hudson’s Bay Company: A Political and Humane Question of Vital Importance to the Honour of Great Britain, to the Prosperity of Canada, and to the Existence of the Native Tribes; Being an Address to the Right Honorable Henry Labouchere, Her Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for the Colonies. London: William Tweedie, 1856.
Abrams, Gary. Prince Albert: The First Century, 1866–1966. Saskatoon: Modern Press, 1966.
Ahenakew, Edward. “An Opinion of the Frog Lake Massacre.” Alberta Historical Review 8 (1960): 9–15.
——. Voices of the Plains Cree. Edited by Ruth M. Buck. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1973.
Akrigg, G. P. V., and Helen B. Akrigg. British Columbia Chronicle, 1778–1846: Adventures by Land and Sea. Vancouver: Discovery Press, 1975.
Albers, Patricia. “Changing Patterns of Ethnicity in the Northeastern Plains, 1780–1870.” In History, Power, and Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Americas, 1492–1992, edited by Jonathan Hill, 90–118. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1996.
——. “Plains Ojibwa.” In Plains, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie, 652–60. Vol. 13, Part 1, of Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001.
Allsopp, T. R. Agricultural Weather in the Red River Basin of Southern Manitoba over the Period 1800 to 1975. Atmospheric Environment Report CLI–3–77. Downsview, ON: Fisheries and Environment Canada, 1977.
Anderson, Ian. Sitting Bull’s Boss: Above the Medicine Line with James Morrow Walsh. Surrey, BC: Heritage House, 2000.
Andrews, Isabel. “The Crooked Lakes Reserves: A Study in Indian Policy in Practice from the Qu’Appelle Treaty to 1900.” MA thesis, University of Regina, 1972.
——. “Indian Protest against Starvation: The Yellow Calf Incident of 1884.” Saskatchewan History 28 (1975): 41–51.
Angel, Barbara. “Fur Trade Relations with Native People at Fort Vermilion, 1821–1846.” In Proceedings of the Fort Chipewyan and Fort Vermilion Bicentennial Conference, edited by Patricia A. McCormack and R. Geoffrey Ironside, 86–93. Edmonton: Boreal Institute for Northern Studies, University of Alberta, 1990.
Arndt, Katherine L. “Dynamics of the Fur Trade on the Middle Yukon River, 1839 to 1868.” Ph.D. diss., University of Alaska, 1996.
Arngrimsson, Gudjon. Nyja Island: Saga of the Journey to New Iceland. Winnipeg: Turnstone Press, 1997.
Asch, Michael. “Some Effects of the Late Nineteenth Century Modernization of the Fur Trade on the Economy of the Slavey Indians.” Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 6 (1976): 7–15.
Ashford, D. A., et al. “Bovine Tuberculosis: Environmental Public Health Preparedness Considerations for the Future.” In Mycobacterium Bovis Infection in Animals and Humans, 2nd ed., edited by Charles O. Thoen, James H. Steele, and Michael J. Gilsdorf, 305–15. Ames: Blackwell Publishing, 2006.
Askenazy, Hans. Cannibalism: From Sacrifice to Survival. Amherst: Prometheus Books, 1994.
Atton, F. Melvyn. “Fish Resources and the Fisheries Industry of the Canadian Plains.” Prairie Forum 9 (1984): 315–25.
——. “The Life: Fish and Water.” In Three Hundred Prairie Years: Henry Kelsey’s “Inland Country of Good Report,” edited by Henry Epp, 17–26. Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 1993.
Ayele, W. Y., S. D. Neill, J. Zinsstag, M. G. Weiss, and I. Pavlik. “Bovine Tuberculosis: An Old Disease but a New Threat to Africa.” International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 8 (2004): 924–37.
Ball, T. F. “Historical and Instrumental Evidence of Climate: Western Hudson’s Bay, Canada, 1714–1850.” In Climate since A.D. 1500, edited by Raymond S. Bradley and Philip D. Jones, 40–73. London: Routledge, 1995.
——. “The Year without a Summer: Its Impact on the Fur Trade and History of Western Canada.” In The Year without a Summer: World Climate in 1816, edited by C. R. Harington, 196–202. Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Nature, 1992.
Ballantyne, Philip, et al. “Aski-Puko-the Land Alone: A Report on the Expected Effects of the Proposed Hydro-Electric Installation at Wintego Rapids upon the Cree of the Peter Ballantyne and Lac la Ronge Bands.” Regina: Saskatchewan Indian Federated College Library, 1976.
Bamforth, Douglas B. “Climate, Chronology, and the Course of War in the Middle Missouri Region of the North American Plains.” In The Archaeology of Warfare: Prehistories of Raiding and Conquest, edited by Elizabeth N. Arkush and Mark W. Allen, 66–100. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2006.
——. “An Empirical Perspective on Little Ice Age Climatic Change on the Great Plains.” Plains Anthropologist 35 (1990): 359–66.
——. “Indigenous People, Indigenous Violence: Precontact Warfare on the North American Great Plains.” Man, n.s., 29 (1994): 95–115.
Bamforth, Douglas, and Curtis Nepstad-Thornberry. “Reconsidering the Occupational History of the Crow Creek Site (39BF 11).” Plains Anthropologist 52 (2007): 153–73.
Banting, Meredith B., ed. Early History of Saskatchewan Churches. Regina: Banting Publishers, 1975.
Barkun, Michael. Disaster and the Millennium. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974.
Barkwell, Peter A. “The Medicine Chest Clause in Treaty No. 6.” Canadian Native Law Review 4 (1981): 1–21.
Barr, William. “Lieutenant Aemilius Simpson’s Survey: York Factory to Fort Vancouver, 1826.” In Selected Papers of Rupert’s Land Colloquium 2000, compiled by David G. Malaher, 1–8. Winnipeg: Centre for Rupert’s Land Studies, University of Winnipeg, 2000.
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Barron, F. Laurie. “Indian Agents and the North-West Rebellion.” In 1885 and After: Native Society in Transition, edited by F. Laurie Barron and James Waldram, 139–54. Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 1985.
——. “The Indian Pass System in the Canadian West, 1882–1935.” Prairie Forum 13 (1988): 25–42.
Barsh, Russel L. “The Substitution of Cattle for Bison on the Great Plains.” In The Struggle for the Land: Indigenous Insight and Industrial Empire in the Semiarid World, edited by Paul A. Olson, 103–26. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.
Baumgartner, Frederic J. Longing for the End: A History of Millennialism in Western Civilization. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.
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Beal, Bob, and Rod Macleod. Prairie Fire: The 1885 North-West Rebellion. Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers, 1984.
Beal, Carl. “Money, Markets, and Economic Development in Saskatchewan Indian Reserve Communities, 1870–1930s.” Ph.D. diss., University of Manitoba, 1994.
Beaudoin, Alwynne. “What They Saw: The Climatic and Environmental Context for Euro-Canadian Settlement in Alberta.” Prairie Forum 24 (1999): 1–40.
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——, ed. A Year Inland: The Journal of a Hudson’s Bay Company Winterer. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2000.
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Binnema, Theodore. Common and Contested Ground: A Human and Environmental History of the Northwestern Plains. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.
Bishop, Charles. “The Emergence of the Northern Ojibwa: Social and Economic Consequences.” American Ethnologist 3 (1976): 39–54.
——. “Northern Ojibwa Emergence: The Migration.” In Papers of the Thirty-Third Algonquian Conference, edited by H. C. Wolfart, 13–109. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2002.
——. The Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade: An Historical and Ecological Study. Culture and Communities: A Series of Monographs. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974.
Bishop, Charles, and Estelle Smith. “Early Historic Populations in Northwestern Ontario: Archaeological and Ethnohistorical Interpretations.” American Antiquity 40 (1975): 54–63.
Black Rogers, Mary. “Varieties of ‘Starving’: Semantics and Survival in the Subarctic Fur Trade, 1750–1850.” Ethnohistory 33 (1986): 353–83.
Blain, Eleanor. “Dependency: Charles Bishop and the Northern Ojibwa.” In Aboriginal Resource Use in Canada: Historical and Legal Aspects, edited by K. Abel and J. Friesen, 93–106. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1991.
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Boulton, Charles A. I Fought Riel: A Military Memoir. Edited by Heather Robertson. Toronto: Lorimer, 1985.
Bourgeault, Ron. “The Indian, the Métis, and the Fur Trade: Class, Sexism, and Racism in the Transition from ‘Communism’ to Capitalism.” Studies in Political Economy 12 (1983): 45–80.
Bowsfield, Hartwell, ed. The Letters of Charles John Brydges, 1879–1882, Hudson’s Bay Company Land Commissioner. Hudson’s Bay Record Society, vol. 31. Winnipeg: Hudson’s Bay Record Society, 1977.
——, ed. The Letters of Charles John Brydges, 1883–1889, Hudson’s Bay Company Land Commissioner. Hudson’s Bay Record Society, vol. 33. Winnipeg: Hudson’s Bay Record Society, 1981.
Boyd, Robert T. “Demographic History, 1774–1874.” In Northwest Coast, edited by Wayne Suttles, 135–48. Vol. 7 of Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990.
Boyd, M., and C. Surette. “Northernmost Precontact Maize in North America.” American Antiquity 75 (2010): 117–33.
Brázdil, Rudolph, Christian Pfister, Heinz Wanner, Hans Von Storch, and Jürg Luterbacher. “Historical Climatology in Europe: The State of the Art.” Climatic Change 70 (2005): 363–430.
Breen, David. The Canadian Prairie West and the Ranching Frontier, 1874–1924. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983.
Brewer, Anthony. Marxist Theories of Imperialism: A Critical Survey. London: Routledge, 1980.
Briffa, K. R., P. D. Jones, F. H. Shwingruber, and T. J. Osborn. “Influence of Volcanic Eruptions on Northern Hemisphere Summer Temperature over the Past 600 Years.” Nature 393 (1998): 450–55.
Brightman, Robert. “Conservation and Resource Depletion: The Case of the Boreal Forest Algonkians.” In The Question of the Commons: The Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources, edited by Bonnie McCay and James Acheson, 121–42. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1987.
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Brown, Dee. Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West. New York: Bantam Books, 1970.
Brown, Wayne F. Steele’s Scouts: Samuel Benfield Steele and the North-West Rebellion. Surrey, BC: Heritage House, 2001.
Brunton, Bill B. “Kootenai.” In Plateau, edited by Deward E. Walker, 223–37. Vol. 12 of Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998.
Bryce, P. H. “The History of the American Indians in Relation to Health.” Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records 12 (1914): 128–41.
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